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Tubercolosi genitale

Da dottvolpicelli

La tubercolosi (TBC) nella sua manifestazione clinica si presenta in due tipi principali: a localizzazione polmonare (TBC primaria) e a localizzazione extra-polmonare (TBC secondaria o miliare).  Nella donna la localizzazione  genitale della tubercolosi si riscontra con una frequenza del 15%  fra tutte le pazienti TBC. la TBC colpisce di preferenza in età infantile e nella pubertà. L’infezione avviene per via ematica da un focolaio a distanza (polmoni, pleura) solitamente cronicizzato (1).

Cellula di Langhans

Infezione tubercolare primaria: con tale definizione si indica il processo morboso che si sviluppa dopo il primo contatto della paziente con i bacilli di Koch. In un punto si forma una piccola area infiammatoria, un granuloma o tubercolo  contenente linfociti, macrofagi, cellule giganti polinucleate (cellule di Langhans) e fibroblasti. Al tubercolo si associa l’infiammazione dei linfonodi locali e insieme formano il nome di complesso primario. che può evolvere in diffusione miliare polmonare o extra-polmonare oppure può stabilizzarsi in una infezione cronica localizzata paucibacillare, asintomatica con persistenza dei micobatteri oppure terminare in necrosi colliquativa caseosa o guarigione totale con residua zona fibrotica locale (lesione di Ghon) (2-5).

La replicazione intracellulare avviene nei macrofagi alveolari inattivi mentre l’infezione cellulare stimola fattori chemiotattici dell’ospite (C5a) e richiama i leucociti neutrofili che accorrono per primi entro 4 ore. Entro 12 ore i neutrofili vengono rimpiazzati dai monociti-macrofagi e linfociti T Helper  (Th) CD4+ e CD8+. La sottoclasse Th1  produce interferone gamma  (IFNγ) e IL2 mentre la sottoclasse Th2  produce IL4, IL5, IL6, IL10 e IL12. I linfociti Th1 e Th2 inoltre producono, insieme ai linfociti B, gli anticorpi specifici per i mycobatteri. I Th2, ma non i Th1, hanno un ruolo essenziale nella produzione di IgE  Le citochine summenzionate sono in grado di attivare i macrofagi inerti e renderli in grado di fagocitare i detriti dei micobatteri  lisati dai linfociti T citotossici (linfociti killer, NK). Se la reazione della pz. ha successo, inizia il processo di guarigione e il tessuto  infiammato viene sostituito da tessuto cicatriziale (lesione di Ghon),  Quest’ultima  all’esame radiografico appare come una piccola area sclerotizzata.
Quando il processo infettivo è ancora in atto, la radiografia evidenzia l’ingrossamento dei linfonodi satelliti dell’area colpita (adenopatia satellitare).

Epidemiologia: le popolazioni più colpite dalla TBC nel mondo si localizzano nella fascia sub-equatoriale africana, bub-continente indiano, Cina, Mongolia, Europa orientale e zona artica (Inuit).

Fisiopatologia dell’infezione tubercolare:  il micoplasma, una volta penetrato nella cellula ospite,  per sopravvivere non si avvale  di esotossine esogene ma della  capacità di resistere al killing intracellulare e della produzione produzione di enzimi con azione con cui provoca la lisi cellulare e la liberazione dei micoplasmi replicati.

Nel 10% circa dei casi si ha diffusione miliare in sede locale  che può evolvere in tubercolosi polmonare cronica con tutta la sequele di complicane:  formazioni di caverne  tubercolotiche, Sindrome da distress respiratorio (SDR),consunzione, aneurisma di Rasmussen (aneurisma di un ramo dell’arteria polmonare localizzata a livello della parete di una caverna tubercolare) (7-10) o avere una evoluzione drammatica  fino al soffocamento per compressione delle vie aree da linfoadenomegalia toracica. La diffusione miliare può avvenire  in sedi extrapolmonari anche lontane come quelle a carico dell’apparato genitale, a distanza di pochi mesi o anni dopo la prima infezione (infezione tubercolare se.

Epidemiologia: La morbilità della TBC, ossia il numero delle persone che si ammalano, è abbastanza elevata.  Nel mondo, due miliardi di persone sono infettate e rischiano di sviluppare la malattia.  La recrudescenza di questa malattia nei paesi industrializzati è favorita dal propagarsi del virus dell’AIDS, che riduce le difese immunitarie, e dal fenomeno delle emigrazioni e dei viaggi, che fungono da vettore del bacillo.  Inoltre è allarmante l’aumento dei ceppi multiresistenti ai farmaci.  La TBC può essere trasmessa all’uomo anche dai bovini affetti e dagli uccelli.  Mentre quest’ultimo tipo riveste scarsa importanza per quanto riguarda la contrazione della malattia da parte dell’uomo, il bacillo della tubercolosi bovina è patogeno anche per la specie umana, nella quale provoca per lo più forme extrapolmonari, colpendo ghiandole linfatiche, reni, intestino, ossa e articolazioni. Occorre tuttavia rilevare che nei paesi in cui la tubercolosi bovina è stata quasi completamente debellata e il latte viene sottoposto a pastorizzazione, questo tipo di bacillo ormai non riveste, in pratica, più alcun valore come agente patogeno per l’uomo (1).

Taluni gruppi etnici, in particolare le donne di colore e le esquimesi, sembrano avere una maggiore predisposizione ad ammalare di tubercolosi, ma non esistono al momento attuale prove certe al riguardo. La maggior frequenza della malattia in minoranze etniche, quali messicani e indiani d’America, riscontrata in passato, è probabilmente da addebitarsi non tanto a una predisposizione individuale, quanto a fattori ambientali.
In queste popolazioni è infatti aumentata la possibilità di contagio legata alle carenti condizioni di vita, alla insalubrità e al sovraffollamento degli alloggi. Nella maggioranza dei casi, infatti, esse vengono colpite dalla malattia quando si trasferiscono nelle grandi città. Si presume che esista una certa predisposizione costituzionale alla tubercolosi, anche se a tale fattore si attribuisce attualmente un’importanza assai minore che in passato.

Età e TBC: i lattanti e i bambini fino ai 3 anni sono maggiormente esposti al pericolo di contrarre la malattia, che in essi decorre sempre in maniera particolarmente grave. Un altro periodo delicato è quello dell’adolescenza. Nell’età media, dai 30 ai 50 anni, si riscontra invece il maggior numero di casi cronici. Quando il processo tubercolare insorge per la prima volta in età avanzata, può assumere un decorso acuto di notevole gravità.

Modalità di trasmissione della TBC: di solito attraverso quattro vie:
a) l’apparato respiratorio, cioè tramite l’inalazione degli stessi bacilli, contenuti in goccioline o particelle infette e disseminati da malati nel tossire, nello sternutire o con l’escreato;
b) l’apparato digerente, cioè ingerendo cibi infetti, usando posate di cui si sia servito un malato, oppure bevendo latte di bovine affette da tubercolosi;
c) più raramente, per contatto diretto con una sorgente infettiva;
d) molto raramente, si può inoltre verificare il passaggio per via transplacentare; vale a dire dalla madre, ammalata di tubercolosi, al feto che può nascere egli stesso ammalato di tubercolosi, più frequentemente con un’epatite tubercolare primitiva.

 

TUBERCOLOSI GENITALE

Tutti gli organi genitali, in particolare le tube, possono essere colpiti. A livello dell’utero, spesso è interessato l’endometrio, mentre le lesioni ovariche sono rare, la vagina e la vulva solo eccezionalmente appaiono colpite.

TBC tubarica: La TBC genitale è causa di infertilità  per la formazioni di idrosalpingi e occlusione tubarica, Se si associano aderenze pelviche e periepatiche si costituisce  la Sindrome di Fitz-Hugh-Curtis (8-10).


Tubercolosi dell’utero: Dopo l’endometrite postabortiva e postpuerperale, la tubercolosi dell’utero rappresenta una delle più frequenti forme di endometrite. La tubercolosi dell’utero occupa il secondo posto nelle manifestazioni tubercolari dell’apparato genitale femminile, preceduta dalla salpingite tubercolare, seguita dalla tubercolosi dell’ovaio e della vagina. Abitualmente, la tubercolosi dell’endometrio e della cervice è secondaria ad una tubercolosi della salpinge; la propagazione dell’infezione avviene di regola per via canalicolare discendente. Possibile è anche la diffusione per contiguità o per via linfatica, partendo da una tubercolosi tubarica o peritoneale. Di gran lunga meno frequente è l’infezione per via ematica, che si verifica nella tubercolosi miliare generalizzata.
Il bacillo di Koch ha la capacità di eccitare l’endotelio tubarico che diventa molto proliferativo sino a simulare un carcinoma tubarico. Questo fenomeno riguarda anche il collo dell’utero e l’endometrio. Nell’endometrio, però, non si forma il granuloma a causa del ciclo a cui è sottoposto, in quanto sono necessari almeno 40 giorni per la formazione del granuloma stesso. In questo caso si osserva un insieme di cellule giganti, cellule epitelioidi, cellule che derivano da un granuloma in fase di organizzazione. L’unico caso in cui si può osservare un granuloma endometriale è quello che si sviluppa per un infezione nel periodo post-menopausale.

Endometrite tubercolare: è la forma di gran lunga più frequente di tubercolosi del corpo dell’utero, essendo di regola l’interessamento del miometrio e del perimetrio secondario (per contiguità o per via linfatica) a quello dell’endometrio; la perimetrite tubercolare può anche fare parte di una peritonite specifica: è frequente causa di sterilità che può essere l’unico sintomo della malattia
Si distingue una forma a focolai miliarici, una forma a focolai nodulari ed una forma ulcero-caseosa.

  • Endometrite tubercolare a focolai miliarici, solo di rado i tubercoli sono visibili macroscopicamente, come piccoli noduli grigiastri o grigio-giallastri nella mucosa tumida ed iperemica. Istologicamente, i tubercoli miliari sono per lo più distribuiti irregolarmente e prediligono le zone situate in prossimità delle arteriole endometriali.
  • Endometrite tubercolare nodulare:  si presenta sotto forma di placche nodulari giallastre che ispessiscono la mucosa e sconfinano spesso nel miometrio.
  • Endometrite tubercolare ulcero-casosa:  la mucosa rigonfia ed aumentata di spessore si presenta diffusamente caseificata e cosparsa di ulcerazioni; materiale caseoso si riscontra nella cavità uterina. Si associa una pelvi-peritonite tubercolare e può coesistere una tubercolosi renale. Se, per un processo di fibrosi, si occlude l’orifizio uterino interno, l’essudato caseoso, non potendo essere eliminato all’esterno, si accumula in cavità determinando un aumento di volume talora cospicuo dell’utero; si parla di piometra tubercolare.

Diagnostica:

A) Sintomatologia: nel 25% dei casi la malattia è asintomatica. I primi “segnali d’allarme” sono sovente ridotti e apparentemente insignificanti.  Di solito sono costituiti da:

  1.  sensazione di stanchezza cronica;
  2. perdita di peso;
  3. difficoltà di digestione e inappetenza;
  4. tosse produttiva con abbondante secrezione e talvolta sangue;
  5. febbre,  non molto elevata, più frequentemente serotina e talvolta accompagnata da brividi modesti e sudorazione;
  6. dolore pelvi-addominale
  7. Metrorragia (AUB) o amenorrea
  8. Sterilità primaria o secondaria da attribuire a stenosi tubarica e/o aderenze intracavitarie (S. di Ascherman)
    Occasionalmente, la tubercolosi può manifestarsi in modo improvviso e drammatico, per esempio con una violenta emorragia polmonare (emottisi) e con dolori acuti al torace, causati da pleurite.

B) Visita ginecologica: presenza di muco cervicale molto aderente, di colorito giallo.

C) Diagnostica strumentale: I metodi più sicuri sono:

  • l’esame radiografico del torace
  • la ricerca dei bacilli di Koch nell’espettorato, nel broncoaspirato, nell’aspirato pleurico, nel liquido di lavaggio broncoalveolare, nelle secrezioni vaginali  o nel materiale bioptico ricavato dal curetage della cavità uterina. Oggi, per la loro identificazione si possono usare anche sonde geniche, anticorpi monoclonali e metodi radiometrici.
  • Saggio rilascio IFNγ (Quantiferon)
  • l‘isteroscopia e la celioscopia con prelievi bioptici mirati confermeranno definitivamente la diagnosi.
  • Test alla tubercolina: La tubercolina è una soluzione contenente un liquido ottenuto dalle colture dei bacilli tubercolari. Il test alla tubercolina consiste nell’inoculare sotto la cute questa soluzione al fine di accertare se nell’organismo si sia verificata un’infezione tubercolare. Poiché l’organismo che ha subito una prima infezione tubercolare è particolarmente reattivo nei confronti dei bacilli di Koch – sviluppa cioè una forma di allergia a questi agenti patogeni –, il test alla tubercolina evidenzia, tramite la comparsa o meno di una reazione cutanea, la presenza o l’assenza dell’iperreattività dell’organismo nei confronti dei bacilli tubercolari.  Se la reazione risulta “positiva”, significa che il soggetto, in un qualsiasi periodo della sua vita, ha contratto la tubercolosi; soltanto l’esame radiografico o l’analisi dell’espettorato, tuttavia, consentono di stabilire se essa sia ancora in atto o no.
  • Il test di Mantoux consiste nell’inoculazione intradermica di 5 unità di derivato proteico purificato o PPD (equivalente a 0,1 mg). La intradermoreazione  (conseguente alla risposta dei linfociti sensibilizzati) deve essere valutata dopo 48 ore. Una lesione con un diametro >10 mm deve essere considerata, nell’individuo sano, positiva. Nell’individuo non immunocompetente, si assume come positiva una lesione maggiore di 5 mm di diametro. Il test di Mantoux, benché ancora valido come misura di controllo, risulta spesso positivo non solo nella tubercolosi attiva, ma anche dopo esposizione a micobatteri ambientali innocui, dopo esposizione asintomatica recente a M. tuberculosis, nelle infezioni latenti e nei soggetti vaccinati.

TERAPIA:  La maggior parte degli esperti ritiene la rifampicina (Rifadin) combinata con isoniazide (Nicozid) ed etambutolo (Etibi) la terapia di scelta per il trattamento della tubercolosi. La terapia della TBC prevede l’uso di farmaci quasi tutti controindicati in caso di gravidanza, estremamente tossici per il feto.

  1. Isoniazide
  2. Rifampicina per via orale o per insufflazione utero-tubarica
  3. Etambutolo
  4. Streptomicina
  5. Pirazinamide
  6. Sulfamidici
  7. Vitamina D2

L’evoluzione della malattia regredisce per effetto di tubercolostatici, ma possono esserci postumi quali la sterilità; oppure il focolaio tubercolotico può risvegliarsi. La salpingite acuta da TBC presenta, nel suo quadro clinico, sintomi simili ad una comune salpingite batterica con febbre e dolori pelvici. In caso di intervento chirurgico si riscontrano ascessi tubercolari delle due tube, ricoperte da essudato aderenziale (5,11).

Vaccino anti-TBC: il vaccino BCG (iniziali di “bacillo Calmette-Guérin”) si indica un vaccino antitubercolare, elaborato in Francia, costituito da bacilli tubercolari del tipo bovino, vivi e attenuati, che si ritiene conferisca una certa immunità contro la tubercolosi (la protezione è efficace nei confronti della tubercolosi extrapolmonare, ma non verso quella polmonare). Esso viene somministrato o mediante iniezione unica o plurime sottocute.  Nel primo caso, dopo una-due settimane, compare un nodulo arrossato, che successivamente, nell’arco di due o tre mesi, scompare; nel secondo, si formano vari piccoli noduli che in uno o due mesi scompaiono senza lasciare cicatrici. L’immunità insorge circa tre mesi dopo la vaccinazione e dura in media cinque anni.

Bibliografia:

  1. WHO report on the TB epidemic, TB a global Emergency, WHO/TB/94.177. World Health Organization, Geneva,1994.
  2. Cain H, Kraus B. «Cellular aspects of granulomas». Pathol Res Pract. 1982 Oct;175(1):13-37, PMID 7155984
  3. Anderson JM. «Multinucleated giant cells». Curr Opin Hematol. 2000 Jan;7(1):40-7, PMID 10608503
  4. Pritchard J, Foley P, Wong H, Langerhans and Langhans: what’s misleading in a name? in Lancet, vol. 362, nº 9387, settembre 2003, p. 922,
  5. Sharma JB, Malhotra M, Arora R: “Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome as a result of genital tubercolosis; a case report of three cases”. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2003; 82(3):295-297.
  6. Singh N, Sumana G, Mittal S.: “Genital tuberculosis: a leading cause for infertility in women seeking assisted conception in North India”. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2008 Oct; 278(4):325-7. Epub 2008 Feb 19.
  7. Tripathy SN, Tripathy SN.: “Infertility and pregnancy outcome in female genital tuberculosis”.
  8.  Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2002 Feb; 76(2):159-63.
  9. American Thoracic Society, CDC, Infectious Diseases Society of America: ” Treatment of tuberculosis” MMWR 2003; 52: RR-11.to 1988. J R Soc Health 110: 88-89.
  10. Guo JX . Arteriography and bronchial artery embolisation for massive hemoptysis in 100 cases of tuberculosis. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi. 1992; 15: 77–8 125–26. (Article in Chinese. Abstract in Medline)
  11. Gimeno Peribanez MJ, Madariaga B, Alfonso Aguiran ER, Medrano Pena J, Fernandez Gomez JA, Herrera M, de Gregario Ariza MA. Life-threatening hemoptysis. Treatment with transcatheter embolisation. Arch Bronchoneumol.1999; 35: 379–84.(Article in Spanish. Abstract in Medline)
  12. Ramakantan R, Bandekar VG, Gandhi MS, Aulakh BG, Deshmukh HL. Masive hemoptysis due to pulmonary tuberculosis: control with bronchial artery embolisation. Radiology 1996; 204 : 875–76.
  13.  Remy J, Lemaitre L, Lafitte JJ, Vilain MO,Saint Michael J, Steenhouwer F. Massive hemoptysis of pulmonary arterial origin: diagnosis and treatment. Am J Roentgenol 1984; 143 : 963–69.
  14. World Health Organization (WHO). Treatment of Tuberculosis. Guidelines for National programmes, 3rd ed. WHO/CDS/TB 2003.313. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 2003.


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